Physiology+and+Cognition

toc =Learning outcome=
 * ** Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour //(for example,// agnosia, anosognosia, prosapagnosia, amnesia)//. Evaluate two relevant studies.// **


 * //This question MAY ask for only TWO studies// **
 * //If so, then your options are:// **
 * ** //HM and Clive Wearing for the localization of memory deficits (anterograde amnesia)// **
 * ** //__OR__ Davidson and Lazar for the impact of meditation on the brain// **

In anterograde amnesia, the patient appears unable to transfer (new) factual information from short term memory to long term memory. However, most are still able to learn new skills (procedural memory)
 * The interaction we will focus on first is memory, specifically //anterograde amnesia// **

__** Essay tips **__
 * A quick essay reference once you have worked through the learning tasks on this page.**


 * Identify the following to set the context for your answer **
 * 1) The cognitive process is ........ (eg. memory OR )
 * 2) The behavior is............(eg. recall OR meditation)
 * 3) The physiological factor is........(eg. role of the hippocampus OR changes in the brain OR brain damage etc)

Make sure you discuss the __**interaction**__ of biological and cognitive factors. Define the word '//interaction//' - THIS is your focus. For example, you could define the bidirectional model -> the processes of meditation and its impact on the brain
 * For the critical thinking aspect **

=Connections between cerebral tissue and the mind=


 * Thinking about interaction**

We need our memories to help us recognize people around us. What happens when our 'recognition systems' are damaged?

media type="custom" key="24876302" []
 * WATCH**...........

=An introduction to memory=
 * Why study memory as a cognitive process? **


 * Definition of //cognition// - Law et al. p. 66 **

Psychologists often refer to memory as the mediator of behavior. It acts as a link between old information and new information, affecting our judgments, decisions, perceptions, and even leading to changes in the neural connections within the brain itself. Our past experiences influence our immediate and future actions and decisions. Research indicates that language (another cognitive process) structures can influence memory, however, memory systems are also an integral component of language development. Our memories interact with other cognitive processes as well as physiological processes, as well as forming an essential part of how we make sense of our social world. Schacter writes that ‘our memories define us’, that it is essential to the development of our own unique identity’. (p. 168) = Types of memory = [|Declarative, procedural, episodic, semantic] (look at the tabs on the left - you are reading the sections on declarative, procedural, episodic and semantic - your aim is to clarify the definitions of each of those different types of memory)

[|Documentary segments on remembering and forgetting] (memory and amnesia segments)
 * WATCH**

=Area of interaction: Memory and the brain=

__** Focus: a physiological explanation of memory deficits **__

Know the roles of the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the temporal lobe
 * The biological foundation of memory systems**
 * (We will also investigate this in our unit on the Cognitive level of analysis) **

Memory deficits: Amnesia
Case studies - Crane & Hadad, pages 78 - 79
 * If you use the topic of memory deficits, you can explain the physiological connection of any memory deficit**

HOWEVER, the nature of amnesia is still under debate:
 * A physiological view of memory is that memory systems can be localized within different brain areas.**

//"// //Those that believed amnesia to be an impairment in the ability to retrieve memories went on to propose **behavioral** theories of memories in which amnesia was the result of an inability to retrieve the memory (e.g., Spear 1973; Lewis 1979;Miller and Marlin 1984). On the other hand, those who proposed that amnesia was an impairment in the **storage** of the memory went on to lead the **physiological** field in its search for the molecular and cellar mechanisms mediating memory consolidation (McGaugh 2000).//" (Source: Nader, K. [|Unraveling the impenetrable nature of amnesia: A new beginning.] //Learn. Mem//. 2006. 13: 489-490)


 * You will need at least TWO studies to evaluate when answering this learning outcome:**
 * HM
 * Clive Wearing

=What is a case study?= Law et al. Ensure that you pay specific attention to the strengths and limitations of this research approach and to the ethical issues.
 * READ**
 * p. 24 - 25
 * P. 38

The case study of HM (1 paragraph)
Extension
 * READ**
 * Law et al. - p. 43 - 44
 * [|The biological perspectives of memory]
 * []
 * []
 * [|50 years of working with HM]
 * [|Deconstructing Henry] - a website that explores the results of the dissection of Henry's brain


 * WATCH **

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/how-memory-works.html


 * THINK**
 * 1) **Context**
 * ** What happened to him? **
 * ** What were the subsequent symptoms? **
 * 1) **Conclusions of the research**
 * **Identify the nature of the interaction between the elements of memory (cognition) and physiology (specific brain structures and their role - localization theory)**
 * 1) **Strengths of the study**
 * 2) **Limitations of the study**

Summarising the case study of HM
 * REVIEW**

Part 1
__**READ**__
 * [|The man who keeps falling in love with his wife]
 * [|How can musicians keep playing despite amnesia]

__**WATCH**__ [|Clive Wearing: a man without memory]

__**THINK**__
 * 1) **Context**
 * **What happened to him?**
 * **What were the subsequent symptoms**
 * 1) **Conclusions of the research**
 * Identify the nature of the interaction between the elements of memory (cognition) and physiology (specific brain structures and their role - localization theory)
 * 1) Strengths of the study
 * 2) Limitations of the study

Part 2: Supporting the findings of the case study
Studies of episodic memory indicate that most activity appears to take place in
 * The role of parietal lobes**
 * the lateral and medial areas of the parietal lobes
 * and the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe.

__**THINK**__ Question: How do the studies below support the findings of the case study of Clive Wearing?


 * Complementary study 1: [|Maguire et al (2009)]**
 * Procedure**
 * 10 participants watched 3 short films (7 seconds each) and asked to memorize events
 * asked to recall events while in an fMRI scanner - measured changes in blood flow in the brain
 * computer algorithm then had to identify which film each participant watched simply by studying the scans (patterns of brain activity)
 * Findings**
 * results were statistically significant in demonstrating that patterns were distinguishable
 * significance - we encode information in a regular pattern
 * key areas of activity were the hippocampus and areas next to it
 * algorithm performed best when analyzing patterns in the hippocampus -> suggests this area is most important in forming episodic memory
 * rear right, front left and front right areas were most consistently engaged during the activity -> this doesn't mean that researchers know exactly what is happening, simply that they are connected in some way
 * Significance?


 * Complementary study 2: Simons et al (2008)**
 * participants asked to recall specific events
 * brain monitored for activity
 * lateral and medial areas of the temporal lobe active
 * significance?


 * Complementary study 3: Berryhill et al. (2007)**
 * assessed patients with ventral parietal damage
 * asked to recall events from own lives
 * memories were less vivid with less detail than undamaged controls
 * when asked more probing questions, patients were then able to recall detail
 * Significance?

"//Findings from brain-damaged patients and from functional neuroimaging sometimes seem inconsistent....for example, the importance of the parietal cortex in human memory seems greater in neuroimaging studies than in studies on brain-damaged patients//" Eysenck, M. and Keane, M. T. (2006). Cognitive Psychology: a student's handbook. New York: Psychology Press. page 285
 * Limitation of cognitive neuroscience research**

=An alternative area of interaction: A study of the impact of meditation on the brain= (For those of you interested in meditation, this is another focus for this learning outcome. If you want, you may write on this instead of anterograde amnesia)

Introduction

 * Identify the following to set the context for your answer **
 * 1) The cognitive process is //mindful activities involved in meditation (eg. being asked to think about a loved one, focusing attention etc)//
 * 2) The behavior is //meditation//
 * 3) The physiological factor is //changes in the brain//

**Impact of meditation on the brain (Paragraph 1)**
In experienced meditators
 * brain is more active in the left prefrontal cortex
 * region associated with happiness, positive thoughts, concentration (focused attention) and planning

__**Possible studies**__ //(CHOOSE 2 to evaluate - one could then be a complementary study to demonstrate strength of findings)// [|Davidson]
 * Study 1**
 * used fMRI on meditating monks
 * found brain activity to be much higher in left prefrontal cortex

Newberg Findings
 * Study 2**
 * [|analyzed scans of eight Tibetan Buddhist practitioners] during meditation using [|SPECT]
 * brain’s prefrontal cortex during deep meditation -> increase in blood flow and neural activity
 * upper rear part of the brain (parietal area) - described by Newberg as the Oreintation Association Area (OAA) -> decrease in brain activity in that area

[|Newberg et al]
 * Study 3 **
 * 14 subjects with memory loss problems went through an 8-week meditation program after a pre-program baseline SPECT scan
 * improvements were shown in areas such as logical memory
 * accompanied by increased activity in the right prefrontal cortex


 * ** VOCABULARY (for next section) **


 * Brain Plasticity**: Refers to the brain's ability to rearrange the connections between it's neurons. Changes occur as a result of learning/experience. Can change functional qualities of brain structures. [Hubel and Wiesel (1965) demonstrated that the brain could change as a response to environmental input]


 * Dendritic branching**: every time we learn something new, the neurons connect to create a new trace/path in the brain. Grow in numbers and connect with other neurons. [Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972)]


 * What are brain waves? **


 * gamma waves:** pattern of brain waves (have been linked to higher reasoning faculties)

[|Comparing brain waves in normal brain activity]

[|The basics of brain waves] (find out what different waves signify)

[|Sabbatini on how the EEG work] [|s] ||

**Study 1: Davidson et. al. (Paragraph 2)**
Is Meditation able to change brain activity?
 * Richard Davidson (2004): looking at the correlation between meditation and brain activity. 8 buddhist monks (in Tibet) highly experienced in meditation, 10 volunteers who were trained in meditation for 1 week. Participants were told to meditate on love and compassion.
 * Using EEG scans was able to see the monks + 2 volunteers experienced an increase in gamma waves. - difference between base line activity and activity during and after meditation
 * After stopping meditation - volunteers returned to normal, but monks attained their high gamma wave production. *monks had meditated for 10,000 hours*
 * Davidson concluded that meditation can have long term effects on the brain

__**Review the full study below**__ to help you understand the aim, procedure, findings and conclusions of this study

You can also use Hannibal page 12 (IB study guide)

The study - Gamma synchrony during mental practice (download the document!!)

Study 2: Lazar et. al. (Paragraph 3)
Meditation and cortical thickness (download the document!!)

[|Or click here for a quick review]

**Aim of study**: to see if meditation results in changes to cortical thickness
 * Participan**ts: 20 meditation practitioners (NOT monks)
 * all meditated regularly
 * Method**: used MPRAGE and other computational approaches (including voxel based morphology) to measure density of grey matter
 * Findings**:
 * cortical regions thicker in meditators than controls
 * Most of the regions affected were in the right hemisphere
 * This area has been found to be significant in activities requiring sustaining attention (a feature of meditation)
 * most experienced practitioners were the oldest
 * despite effects of aging on the pre-frontal cortex, average cortical thickness practitioners in the 40-50 year old range was similar to that of the 20 - 30 year olds, leading researchers to hypothesize that meditation may slow the effects of aging on the structures of the brain.

(download the document!!)
 * Evaluation **

Despite the findings of this study, you CANNOT assume that there is a causal relationship between the thickness of the cortex and meditation, ONLY a correlational relationship
 * those with a thicker cortex may be drawn to meditative activities
 * other factors such as age, sex or genetics may influence the thickness of the cortex, and this therefore confounds the analyses
 * at the same time, findings indicated that meditation was the most likely or plausible explanation for the resulting thickness of the cortex

Supporting studies
**If you need complementary studies for an essay on meditation**

[|Brain waves and meditation] Meditation may increase grey matter[| http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090512134655.htm]

Extension reading
UC Berkeley studies the interaction of brain waves

Turning brain waves into messages - [|how people suffering from complete paralysis can use brain waves to communicate]

=Other areas of interaction=

If you are interested you could look at...........

Training people to control pain
[|Christopher deCharms on TedTalk]

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