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=Explanation of goal setting and its influence on motivation (an overview)= You may need to create sub-headings to help you organize the explanation

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**Different types of Goal setting**
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__Outcome Goal:__focuses on performing better than someone else.(focus on competitive results of the game) Weakness: depends on performance of others Strength: Motivating in long-run

__Performance Goal:__focuses on an individual’s performance/ achieving a specific standard. (independent from other competitors) Strength: Can be used to monitor achievement of the desired outcome goal; doesn’t focus on winning; depends on the individual

__Process Goal:__ focuses on what strategy or technique will lead to success for the individual. Strength: They are very specific and can thus help to focus and avoid anxiety

Direct Mechanistic view – Goals should be specific, measurable and behavioral in terms (Locke 1981, Crane p.303)

Indirect Thought Process view – argues that goals leas to changes in psychological factors that influence performance (Burton 1989, Crane p.303) - E.g.
 * Bad outcome goals = raise anxiety and harm performance
 * Good outcome goals = lower anxiety and boost confidence

Effective Goal Setting – SMARTS (Smith 1994, Crane p.303) S – Specific M – Measurable A – Action R – Realistic T – Timely S – Self-determined

**Mental Imagery**
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//Familiarize// the athlete with a competition site, a race course, a complex play pattern or routine etc. //Motivate// the athlete by recalling images of their goals for that session, or of success in a past competition or beating a competitor in competition //Perfect skills// or skill sequences the athlete is learning or refining //Reduce negative thoughts// by focusing on positive outcomes //Refocus// the athlete when the need arises e.g. if performance is feeling sluggish, imagery of a previous best performance or previous best event focus can help get things back on track //See success// where the athlete sees themselves performing skills correctly and the desired outcomes //Set the stage for performance// with a complete mental run through of the key elements of their performance to set the athlete's desired pre-competition feelings and focus.

Negative and Positive attitude – use a ‘pattern breaker’ (e.g. role model, etc.) to get the athlete focused

**Self-confidence**
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__Performance accomplishments__ – personal success leads to self-confidence, one tried something more difficult, while failure leads to loss of confidence.

__Involvement in success of others__ – “If they can do it, I can do it”.

__Verbal persuasion__ – self talk or talk from coaches/ team to change attitude or behavior positively.

__Imagery__ – creating ‘replays’ of successful performance to make the mastery of something more likely.

__Physiological state__ – Muscular tension, nervous feeling in stomach, etc. can affect it p or n depending on stress management

__Emotional state__ – how to control emotions associated with competition (e.g. excitement/ anxiety)

**Peak Performance –** Characteristics
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Relaxed – feel relaxed but able to move at great strength and ease Confident – trusting instincts and intuition to do the right thing Focused – no worries about past/ future and oblivious to outside events without sense of time Effortless – mind and body are ‘working with another’ in unison with a sense of finesse and grace Automatic – no interference from thoughts or emotions “autopilot” Fun – enjoying the sport In control – feel in control of emotions, thoughts and performance

Motivation
Definition: The intensity and direction of effort (McCullagh 2005) Intensity – quantity of effort Direction – what you are drawn to

Definition: the direction and intensity of one’s effort (Sage 1977) Direction – Whether one seeks out or is attracted to an activity Intensity of Effort – how much effort one puts into a task

Enhanced motivation leads to increased learning, **performance**, enjoyment and persistence in sport (McCullagh 2005)

__ Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000) __

__ Intrinsic: __ - Focused towards developing one’s personal interests, values and potentials and are inherently to pursue (Sebire, Standage, Vansteenkiste 2009) - Motives: (Kasser & Ryan 1993, Vansteenkiste et.al. 2006)
 * Community contribution
 * Social affiliation
 * Health & fitness
 * Self-acceptance

Intrinsic Motivation is an individuals need to feel competency and pride in something (McCullagh 2005) And thus, athletes who are intrinsically motivated do sports for satisfaction and pleasure they get out of it - Three different types (Weinberg & Gould 2003) Knowledge, accomplishment and stimulation è More under ‘rewards’ PDF (Ryan & Deci)


 * Cognitive evaluation theory **

**(CET) (Deci, 1975, Crane p.309)**
- Argues that events that affect one’s feelings of competence and self-determination have an effect on the level of motivation Amorose & Horn (2000), Crane p.309
 * Controlling Aspect = for whom one is doing the activity
 * The less control one has – less motivation
 * Informational Aspect = changes feelings of competence about the sport
 * E.g. an award/ positive – more motivation
 * Critical/ negative – less motivation
 * Critical/ negative – less motivation

- Arousal – general physiological and psychological activation; level of energy - Anxiety – emotional label for a negatively interpreted arousal experience
 * Cognitive anxiety: worry, negative appraisal
 * Somatic anxiety: rapid heartbeat, short breath, stress
 * State anxiety: tension, agitation, restlessness

(Impact of external events)(Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) è Coaches’ behaviors can impact individual’s intrinsic motivation

(Reeve. Deci 1996) Theory – intrinsic motivation is based on orgasmic need for competence and self-determination and thus any event that affects either factor will affect intrinsic motivation.

External events (monetary rewards, deadlines, surveillance = controlling) decrease IM, while positive feedback increase IM.
 * Control factor **

Study by Ryan (1982) showed that positive feedback that implied ‘control’ (‘Good job! You did as you were supposed to!’) Decreased IM while feedback without control (‘Good job! That’s was great’) increased it.

Study by Deci et.al. (1981) ‘Explored effects of competition vs. no competition on intrinsic motivation’ - ‘Try to beat the other’ vs. ‘do your best’ = competition decreased IM because perceived as controlling
 * Competition factor **

‘The effect of competitive outcome on intrinsic motivation was mediated by perceived confidence’ – Vallerand and Reid (1984) = Among competitors IM is greater for winners than for losers due to perceived competence

__ Extrinsic: __ - Have an outward orientation with one’s pursuit directed towards external indicators such as wealth, fame and appealing image (Kasser & Ryan 1993, Vansteenkiste et.al. 2006) - Motives:
 * Financial success
 * Appearance
 * Popularity
 * Power
 * Conformity

Extrinsic motivation is performance of an activity in order to attain some separate outcome (Ryan & Deci 2000) (rewards, positive feedback and recognition) - Four different types (Weinberg & Gould 2003) Integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation

Vansteenkiste, Deci et.al 2003 Study 3 High school students learning tae-bo exercise, 1 group read IM script and 2nd group reads EM script = Students who read IM showed greater behavioral persistence and graded performance than other

**Achievement Goal Perspective Approach**
Goals should be seen as cognitive representation of a purpose one has and it is assumed that this guides behavior and cognition, thus affecting performance Incremental focus = ability can be changed by hard work/ effort //-- Influenced by motivational climate (Crane p.308) --// Entity view = ability is fixed and cannot be changed by effort (Elliot and Dweck (1988), Crane p.307)
 * Task Orientated Goals – “Effort leads to success”
 * Focus: Intrinsic value of progress
 * Ego Orientated Goals – “Better than others/ less effort=success”
 * Focus: one’s ability and self-worth

**Mental Imagery (Crane p.315)**
- Cognitive specific imagery - Cognitive general imagery - Motivational specific imagery - Motivational general imagery

**__Self-Talk:__ (Crane p.318)**
- Positive – general good - Negative – general bad - Instructional – focused specific

=Relevant studies= Study: Children and the influence of Coaches Feedback (Smith ET. Al. 1979, Crane p.305)
 * Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation** Example of kids playing with toys in comparison to athletes who train with the pressure of e.g. a scholarship.

Study: McClelland and Atkinson (1961) & (1953), Crane p.306 - Human motivation is the balance between the motivation to succeed and the fear of failure
 * Theories of Motivation – Achievement & avoidance of failure**

Fazey & Hardy (1988) – Catastrophe model - Argues that when cognitive anxiety increases beyond optimal level, performance declines gradually

Hanin (1997) – Optimum arousal theory - Argues that individual athletes will perform their best if level of arousal or competitive anxiety falls within optimum functioning zone

Look at Study of Rushall (1970) Crane p. 316 - Field experiment to determine effect of mental rehearsal on performance on 50-yard fly-swim

Carpenter (1894) Psychoneuromuscular theory – mental image strengthens neural pathways

Lang (1979) Information-processing model of imagery – image as a script for athletic behavior that can be reproduced = Crane p.317

=Sites to look at= //It’s all in the mind// - [] //Achievement Goal Theory// - []

[] Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation Example of kids playing with toys in comparison to athletes who train with the pressure of e.g. a scholarship.

[] Quotes from athletes who could not ‘handle’ the pressure/ demotivation