The+reliability+of+memory

toc =The nature of memory=

First establish the nature of memory In the context of episodic memory - memory is //reconstructive// Make sure you can define both '//episodic//' and '//reconstructive//'

// "Memory is malleable (Loftus, 2005) It is a reconstructive process that can be influenced by a person’s general knowledge of the world (Norman, Rumelhart, &The LNR Research Group, 1975) and by post-event information(Wright & Loftus, 1998)" //

[|www2.fiu.edu/~dwright/pdf/blend.pdf]

=Learning outcome=
 * With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is ONE cognitive process reliable? **

(if you want to explore a different topic, another focus could be perception in the context of illusions)
 * Our focus is reconstructive memory **
 * (eyewitness memory comes under the umbrella of reconstructive memory) **

=Factors that affect our memories of events=

Language
The study of how language (in the context of the wording of questions) can affect recall of eyewitness events (the crashing car study)
 * Loftus and Palmer (1974)**


 * [|a quick summary (blends both experiments into 1 set of findings)]
 * [|a longer explanation (explains both experiments and provides an evaluation)]

The document below outlines 4. Any one of them can also be used to indicate the level of reliability of Loftus and Palmer's original findings
 * Subsequent experiments carried out by Loftus and colleagues (1975)**

Attention
[|2 experiments on weapons focus] findings
 * Loftus et al (1987)**
 * subjects pay more attention to the weapon than to the perpetrator
 * inaccuracies in recalling details about the perpetrator as well as inability to accurately identify him

Connection between schema and memory distortions
Bartlett (1932)
 * [|a quick summary] (includes the War of the Ghosts story)
 * [|another quick review of the study] (only a review without the story)

=Essay answers=

Outlines of 4 factors may be found below. Choose 2-3 and expand on them in your study notes.
 * Essay answers to this outcome should be able to deal with at least 3 factors.**

Click [|here] for an example of a response to the reliability of eyewitness testimony - this is a model for the style of writing you are working on developing. Some of the references are to material we have studied, some are not. Create your own answer based on what we have reviewed in class.

Evidence to support eyewitness memory
This study "[|examined the recall of][|witnesses to a shooting in a town in Canada. A man had attempted to rob a gun shop. During the course of the robbery the shop owner was shot. He returned fire, killing the would-be robber. The incident occurred in broad daylight, in front of a large number of witnesses. Some months after the event, Yuille and Cutshall tracked down the witnesses and asked to interview them. Fifteen of them agreed to take part in the study. Examining their accounts,] [|Yuille and Cutshall made several important findings:]
 * Study -** Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
 * [|The witnesses were able to recall the incident in a great deal of detail.]
 * [|There was a very high level of agreement between the accounts given by the different witnesses.]
 * [|The witnesses accounts did not alter in response to leading questions.]"

Factor 1: Leading questions
The wording of questions may affect how we reconstruct a memory


 * Evidence and Sources**

Loftus and Palmer 1974
 * Crane pages 81 - 85
 * Short Cuts DVD
 * http://www.holah.co.uk/study/loftus/
 * [|http://onlineclassroom.tv/files/series/psychology/understanding_psychology/classic_studies_in_psychology_1/document4/Loftus on Eyewitness Testimony.ppt]

Support with evidence from other Loftus and Palmer studies (see document above)

Factor 2: Existing schema
Encoding and Recall may be affected by other existing schema, not just language
 * Anderson and Pichert
 * Bransford and Johnson

Factor 3: Time
Loftus and Palmer's experiment also implies that time may be a factor. Lipton (1977) "exposed subjects to a filmed, simulated murder and tested subjects either immediately or after a 1-week delay.... subjects' recall accuracy was poorer (4.3% less) with the delay than when they were immediately tested.
 * Evidence**
 * Does other research support this?

Focus specifically on time as a factor Look at factors b) and c) under '//Method'// on the first page of the reading. Note findings and conclusions.
 * READ**
 * Supporting study - Pezdek and Blandon-Gitlin (2005)**

Factor 4: Cultural variations
Own Race Bias Pages 840 - 844 of [|Gee, H. Eyewitness testimony and cross-racial identification]
 * Evidence**

Factor 5: Emotional arousal (we will cover this factor when we look at the LO on flashbulb memory)
Connection to flashbulb memories

=Practice essay outline=


 * To what extent -** //Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept. Opinions and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence and sound argument.//

** (//Though there are 5 key points below, it is unlikely that you would be able to discuss more than 3. CHOOSE)// **
 * Focus: The reliability of memory **

__** Overview ** __ Research on memory indicates that there are factors that can distort our reconstructions of what happened
 * Explain what you mean - set up your thesis properly**

**__Example Key point 1__: //There is some evidence to indicate that eyewitness memory can be reliable//** >
 * Explain BEFORE illustrating your point with evidence**
 * **Study -** Yuille & Cutshall (1986)

**__Example Key point 2__: //Memory can be influenced by 'leading questions'//**
 * Explain BEFORE illustrating your point with evidence**
 *  Loftus and Palmer

**__Example Key point 3:__ //Recall can be affected by existing schema// **


 * Explain BEFORE illustrating your point with evidence**


 *  Anderson and Pichert
 * our schemata direct how we categorize information as well as WHAT we recall - they tell us what is significant - so we access knowledge from our memories when our schemata tell us its needed. This means, if we don't realize its needed, we don't retrieve it. We may omit details without realizing it


 *  Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory -> schema processing -> use 'War of the Ghosts'

**__Example Key point 4:__ The individual has his/her own bias and this may impact on what we believe we saw or were witness to**


 * Explain BEFORE illustrating your point with evidence**


 * Own-race bias (handout)

** __Example Key point 5:__ Memory can be influenced by emotion and this may impact on encoding and recall **


 * Explain BEFORE illustrating your point with evidence**


 *  flashbulb theory of recall